Help support positive behaviour in children

[Nicola20]

Hi,
I am working on a level 3 qualification having not studied for many years and am feeling really unsure about how to answer the following question.

I have a table of theorists and it then asks for a brief explanation of each theory in relation to behaviour in children. The theorists are :- Piaget, Bandura, Freud, Skinner, Maslow and Watson.
Any advice or suggestions to start me off would be great. I have emailed my tutor too as the course notes for this Unit are virtually non existent.

Thanks

[kaneez77]

In social learning theory, Albert Bandura (1977) agrees with the behaviorist learning theories of classical conditioning and operant conditioning. However, he adds two important ideas:
1. Mediating processes occur between stimuli & responses.
2. Behavior is learned from the environment through the process of observational learning.


Observational Learning






Children observe the people around them behaving in various ways. This is illustrated during the famous Bobo doll experiment (Bandura, 1961).





Individuals that are observed are called models. In society, children are surrounded by many influential models, such as parents within the family, characters on children’s TV, friends within their peer group and teachers at school. These models provide examples of behavior to observe and imitate, e.g., masculine and feminine, pro and anti-social, etc.
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Children pay attention to some of these people (models) and encode their behavior. At a later time they may imitate (i.e., copy) the behavior they have observed. They may do this regardless of whether the behavior is ‘gender appropriate’ or not, but there are a number of processes that make it more likely that a child will reproduce the behavior that its society deems appropriate for its gender.

First, the child is more likely to attend to and imitate those people it perceives as similar to itself. Consequently, it is more likely to imitate behavior modeled by people of the same gender.

Second, the people around the child will respond to the behavior it imitates with either reinforcement or punishment. If a child imitates a model’s behavior and the consequences are rewarding, the child is likely to continue performing the behavior. If a parent sees a little girl consoling her teddy bear and says “what a kind girl you are,” this is rewarding for the child and makes it more likely that she will repeat the behavior. Her behavior has been reinforced (i.e., strengthened).

Reinforcement can be external or internal and can be positive or negative. If a child wants approval from parents or peers, this approval is an external reinforcement, but feeling happy about being approved of is an internal reinforcement. A child will behave in a way which it believes will earn approval because it desires approval.

Positive (or negative) reinforcement will have little impact if the reinforcement offered externally does not match with an individual's needs. Reinforcement can be positive or negative, but the important factor is that it will usually lead to a change in a person's behavior.



Third, the child will also take into account of what happens to other people when deciding whether or not to copy someone’s actions. A person learns by observing the consequences of another person’s (i.e., models) behavior, e.g., a younger sister observing an older sister being rewarded for a particular behavior is more likely to repeat that behavior herself. This is known as vicarious reinforcement.



This relates to an attachment to specific models that possess qualities seen as rewarding. Children will have a number of models with whom they identify. These may be people in their immediate world, such as parents or older siblings, or could be fantasy characters or people in the media. The motivation to identify with a particular model is that they have a quality which the individual would like to possess.



Identification occurs with another person (the model) and involves taking on (or adopting) observed behaviors, values, beliefs and attitudes of the person with whom you are identifying.

The term identification as used by Social Learning Theory is similar to the Freudian term related to the Oedipus complex. For example, they both involve internalizing or adopting another person’s behavior. However, during the Oedipus complex, the child can only identify with the same sex parent, whereas with Social Learning Theory the person (child or adult) can potentially identify with any other person.

Identification is different to imitation as it may involve a number of behaviors being adopted, whereas imitation usually involves copying a single behavior.
There are four mediational processes proposed by Bandura:

1.Attention: The extent to which we are exposed/notice the behavior. For a behavior to be imitated, it has to grab our attention. We observe many behaviors on a daily basis, and many of these are not noteworthy. Attention is therefore extremely important in whether a behavior influences others imitating it.


2.Retention: How well the behavior is remembered. The behavior may be noticed but is it not always remembered which obviously prevents imitation. It is important therefore that a memory of the behavior is formed to be performed later by the observer.

Much of social learning is not immediate, so this process is especially vital in those cases. Even if the behavior is reproduced shortly after seeing it, there needs to be a memory to refer to.



3.Reproduction: This is the ability to perform the behavior that the model has just demonstrated. We see much behavior on a daily basis that we would like to be able to imitate but that this not always possible. We are limited by our physical ability and for that reason, even if we wish to reproduce the behavior, we cannot.

This influences our decisions whether to try and imitate it or not. Imagine the scenario of a 90-year-old-lady who struggles to walk watching Dancing on Ice. She may appreciate that the skill is a desirable one, but she will not attempt to imitate it because she physically cannot do it.



4.Motivation: The will to perform the behavior. The rewards and punishment that follow a behavior will be considered by the observer. If the perceived rewards outweigh the perceived costs (if there are any), then the behavior will be more likely to be imitated by the observer. If the vicarious reinforcement is not seen to be important enough to the observer, then they will not imitate the behavior.

[kaneez77]

Skinner is regarded as the father of Operant Conditioning, but his work was based on Thorndike’s (1905) law of effect. Skinner introduced a new term into the Law of Effect - Reinforcement. Behavior which is reinforced tends to be repeated (i.e., strengthened); behavior which is not reinforced tends to die out-or be extinguished (i.e., weakened).

Skinner (1948) studied operant conditioning by conducting experiments using animals which he placed in a 'Skinner Box' which was similar to Thorndike’s puzzle box.
B.F. Skinner (1938) coined the term operant conditioning; it means roughly changing of behavior by the use of reinforcement which is given after the desired response. Skinner identified three types of responses or operant that can follow behavior.


• Neutral operants: responses from the environment that neither increase nor decrease the probability of a behavior being repeated.


• Reinforcers: Responses from the environment that increase the probability of a behavior being repeated. Reinforcers can be either positive or negative.


• Punishers: Responses from the environment that decrease the likelihood of a behavior being repeated. Punishment weakens behavior.






We can all think of examples of how our own behavior has been affected by reinforcers and punishers. As a child you probably tried out a number of behaviors and learned from their consequences.

For example, if when you were younger you tried smoking at school, and the chief consequence was that you got in with the crowd you always wanted to hang out with, you would have been positively reinforced (i.e., rewarded) and would be likely to repeat the behavior.

If, however, the main consequence was that you were caught, caned, suspended from school and your parents became involved you would most certainly have been punished, and you would consequently be much less likely to smoke now.

[kaneez77]

B.F. Skinner
1904-1990
Operant Conditioning
Skinner is a behaviorist who based his theory on the work of Thorndike and Watson.

Skinner coined the term operant conditioning which means the changing of behavior by the use of reinforcement which is given after the desired response.

Skinner identified three types of responses or operant that can follow behavior:
• Neutral operants: responses from the environment that neither increase nor decrease the probability of a behavior being repeated.

• Reinforcers: Responses from the environment that increase the probability of a behavior being repeated. Reinforcers can be either positive or negative.

• Punishers: Response from the environment that decrease the likelihood of a behavior being repeated. Punishment weakens behavior.

Behaviorism is primarily concerned with observable behavior, as opposed to internal events like thinking and emotion. (i.e., Rats did not learn, they behaved.)

Skinner believed the major influence on human behavior is learning from our environment.
Albert Bandura
1925-
Social Learning Theory
In social learning theory Albert Bandura states that behavior is learned from the environment through the process of observational learning.

Children observe the people around them behaving in various ways and the child is more likely to attend to and imitate those people it perceives as similar to itself. Consequently, it is more likely to imitate behavior modeled by people the same sex as it is.

The people around the child will respond to the behavior it imitates with either reinforcement or punishment. If a child imitates a model’s behavior and the consequences are rewarding, the child is likely to continue performing the behavior.

Then the child will also take into account of what happens to other people when deciding whether or not to copy someone’s actions. This is known as vicarious reinforcement.

Identification occurs with another person (the model) and involves taking on (or adopting) observed behaviors, values, beliefs and attitudes of the person with whom you are identifying.

Identification is different to imitation as it may involve a number of behaviors being adopted whereas imitation usually involves copying a single behavior.

Bandura eventually revised his theory after realizing that cognition is also important in regards to shaping behavior. For instance, Bandura discovered that children have differing abilities to listen, observe, and remember complex behaviors which in turn affect their ability to imitate and learn.
•Assimilation: using an existing schema to deal with a new object or situation.


•Accommodation: takes place when the existing schema (knowledge) does not work, and needs to be changed to deal with a new object or situation.


•Equilibration: occurs when new information cannot be fitted into existing schemas (assimilation) therefore providing an unpleasant state of disequilibrium which drives the learning process since we seek to restore balance by mastering the new challenge (accommodation).
Sensorimotor Stage: birth to about age 2
-Object permanence means knowing that an object still exists, even if it is hidden.

Preoperational Stage: ranges from about ages 2 to 7
-Egocentrism means where the child has no understanding of the world other than her own, current point of view.

Concrete Operational Stage: typically ages 7 to 11
-Conservation is the ability to understand that redistributing material does not affect its mass, number or volume.

Formal Operational Stage: begins at about age 11
-Inferential reasoning is the ability to think about and draw conclusions from things that have not actually been experienced.

The More Knowledgeable Other (MKO): refers to someone who has a better understanding or a higher ability level than the learner, with respect to a particular task, process, or concept. The MKO is not always an adult or teacher, in fact, a child's peers may be the individuals with more knowledge or experience.

The Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD): an important concept that relates what a child can achieve independently to what a child can achieve with guidance and encouragement from a skilled partner or MKO. The ZPD is the area where the most sensitive instruction or guidance should be given, allowing the child to develop skills they will then use on their own, in turn developing higher mental functions.


Important Terms to Understand Vygotsky
Vygotsky and Language
According to Vygotsky language plays 2 critical roles in cognitive development:
1: It is the main means by which adults transmit info to children.
2: Language itself becomes a very powerful tool of intellectual adaptation.


Private speech, also called internal speech, refers to occasions when people talk aloud to themselves. This is particulary prevalent amongst children.

Vygotsky sees "private speech" as a means for children to plan activities and strategies and therefore aid their development. Language is therefore an accelerator to thinking/understanding.

Vygotsky believed that language develops from social interactions, for communication purposes. Later language ability becomes internalized as thought and “inner speech”. Thought is the result of language.

In the 4th Grade Classroom
Instruction
Despite vast differences, the theories of Piaget and Vygotsky can be integrated together in order to create a level of instruction that is not only effective for the teacher, but is also meaningful and stimulating for the student.

Looking at a classroom designed in Piagetian style one would find a classroom that focuses on how a child thinks, not just the final product of the material taught. In other words rather than just knowing a student answered a problem correctly, having an understanding of how the child came up with their answer.

A Piagetian classroom does not focus on standardized goals, it would instead recognize that students learn and develop at their own rate. Instead of trying to force children to develop and learn quicker, the Piagetian classroom teacher would take extra time to create lessons that are for either individuals or for groups of like developed students rather than one lesson for the whole class. A student’s self-initiated and active involvement would be a key and crucial role in a Piagetian classroom.

A Vygtosky classroom is one where the teacher recognizes that it is insufficient for a student’s mental development to simply engage a student in a challenging task, instead the teacher would show and explain how to break down a challenge into tasks and gradually the students would gain the required knowledge.

Ideally, in a 4th grade classroom a teacher could use both of these theories through individual learning assignments, as well as by using cooperative learning centers, labs and group projects.
Management
The focus on behavior through the theories of Skinner and Bandura provide a template for an efficient classroom management plan.

By using modeling, student's will effectively understand what is expected of them by the teacher and ideally learn to imitate that behavior. Modeling lessons is also essential for learning as previously mentioned in regards to Vygotsky's classroom.

Through observational learning, students will also understand the difference between acceptable and unacceptable behavior through their peers.

Reinforcers and punishments are necessary in the classroom in order to maintain consistency and order.

Positive reinforcers may include trips to a "treasure box" or earning "starbucks" while negative reinforcers may be "moving the clip" to the struggling areas. Punishment may include loss of recess, a trip to the principal's office or a note/call home, etc

[Nicola20]

Thank you so much for all your comments, a very useful starting point for what I can write.

[loopylivi]

hi just need a little support on what to write for the question below.


Support children to develop an understanding of the consequences of their behaviour?

[kaneez77]

What Question and unit is this???

[Lucky1]

This is what I put and sent off,

When working in the classroom, the behaviour management is mainly carried out by the class teacher and we all work to the same behaviour expectations. When I am teaching my intervention groups or outside doing the lunch shift or covering the 1-1 TA when they are off, I am the lead in the behaviour management and make sure I am up to date with all the policies, charters and reward systems so that we can follow the guidelines efficiently. It is all about consistency with children and they need firm guidance when learning so because I do the lunch shift and TA, I try not to be too soft at lunch so that they know the boundaries. If I let the rules relax too much and then follow lunch with an intervention group they may not take my teaching seriously and their behaviour and learning may be impacted. By applying boundaries, children will understand what behaviour is acceptable. They need to know the consequences of not doing or saying the right thing too, have ready the praise and rewards for the good behaviour and refuse to tolerate trouble making, if I stick to this then the class will less likely to challenge the rules.

I have since off my assessor has it back and she has said, I started well now please continue to think about behaviour with relation to the policies and procedures that you use, how do you ensure that they are up to date and that you are able to change and review your expectations in line with the school policy?

Please help I’m totally confused as thought I had written about that. Any help and guidance is massively grateful as this will then complete my penultimate assignment for level 3. Passed all the others so far xx

[Bronlearn]

We're in the same situation, I hope someone clears this up. :(

[kaneez77]

one way in which positive behaviour is encouraged, particularly with younger children, is through the use of reward charts. Some kind of system of sanctions and rewards is commonly used in secondary schools, although they may not use reward charts that focus on the individual, instead focusing more on group reward.
eward charts and behaviourism
The use of reward charts or similar reward systems is common, particularly with young children, not only at home but also in schools and by social workers working with children who have particular emotional or behavioural needs. The theory behind such methods stems from a branch of psychology called ‘behaviourism’.